From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCTs) at Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport
Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots when able. In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United States), or actually be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil). Air traffic control was first introduced at London's Croydon Airport in 1921. Archie League, who controlled aircraft using colored flags at what is today Lambert-St. Louis International Airport, is often considered the first air traffic controller.
Preventing collisions is referred to as separation, which is a term used to prevent aircraft from coming too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal separation minima; many aircraft now have collision avoidance systems installed to act as a backup to ATC observation and instructions. In addition to its primary function, the ATC can provide additional services such as providing information to pilots, weather and navigation information and NOTAMs (Notices to Airmen).
In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the majority of airspace, and its services are available to all users (private, military, and commercial). When controllers are responsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is called "controlled airspace" in contrast to "uncontrolled airspace" where aircraft may fly without the use of the air traffic control system. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to follow, or merely flight information (in some countries known as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the airspace. In all cases, however, the pilot in command has final responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate from ATC instructions in an emergency. To ensure communication, all pilots and all controllers everywhere are required to be able to speak and understand English. While they may use any compatible language, English must be used if requested. The native language for the region is normally used. FAA Control Tower Operators (CTO)/Air Traffic Controllers use FAA Order 7110.65S as the authority for all procedures regarding air traffic. For more information regarding Air Traffic Control rules and regulations, refer the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) website at:[1]
Contents
1 Airport control
1.1 Ground Control
1.2 Local or Air Control
1.3 Clearance delivery
1.4 Approach and terminal control
2 En-route, center, or area control
2.1 General characteristics
2.2 Radar coverage
2.3 Flight traffic mapping
3 Problems
3.1 Traffic
3.2 Weather
4 Call signs
5 Technology
6 Major accidents
7 Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and traffic service providers (ATSPs)
8 Proposed changes
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
11.1 History
11.2 Internet services
//
Airport control
Inside the São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport's tower, Latin America's busiest airport.
The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the control tower. The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds. Aerodrome or Tower controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 2 to 5 nautical miles (3.7 to 9.2 km) depending on the airport procedures.
Radar displays are also available to controllers at some airports. Controllers may use a radar system called Secondary Surveillance Radar for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, heading, and other information described in local procedures.
The areas of responsibility for tower controllers fall into three general operational disciplines; Ground Control, Local or Air Control, and Clearance Delivery -- other categories, such as Apron Control or Ground Movement Planner, may exist at extremely busy airports. While each tower's procedures will vary and while there may be multiple teams in larger towers that control multiple runways, the following provides a general concept of the delegation of responsibilities within the tower environment.
Ground Control
Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control abbreviated to GMC or Surface Movement Control abbreviated to SMC) is responsible for the airport "maneuvering" areas, or areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive having vacated the runway and departure gates. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from the ground controller. This is normally done via VHF radio, but there may be special cases where other processes are used. Most aircraft and airside vehicles have radios. Aircraft or vehicles without radios will communicate with the tower via aviation light signals or will be led by vehicles with radios. People working on the airport surface normally have a communications link through which they can reach or be reached by ground control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell phone. Ground control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport because this position might constrain the order in which the aircraft will be sequenced to depart, which can affect the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation.
Some busier airports have Surface Movement Radar (SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or ASDE-X, designed to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are used by the ground controller as an additional tool to control ground traffic, particularly at night or in poor visibility. There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems as they are being modernized. Older systems will display a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems include the capability to display higher quality mapping, radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts.
Local or Air Control
Local or Air Control (most often referred to as the generic "Tower" control, although Tower control can also refer to a combination of the local, ground and clearance delivery positions) is responsible for the active runway surfaces. The Air Traffic Control Tower clears aircraft for take off or landing and ensures the runway is clear for these aircraft. If the tower controller detects any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "go-around" and be re-sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.
Within the tower, a highly disciplined communications process between tower and ground control is an absolute necessity. Ground control must request and gain approval from tower control to cross any runway with any aircraft or vehicle. Likewise, tower control must ensure ground control is aware of any operations that impact the taxiways and must work with the approach radar controllers to ensure "holes" or "gaps" in the arrival traffic are created (where necessary) to allow taxiing traffic to cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take off. Crew Resource Management (CRM) procedures are often used to ensure this communication process is efficient and clear, although this is not as prevalent as CRM for pilots.
Clearance delivery
Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft before they commence taxiing. These contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure. This position will, if necessary, coordinate with the en-route center and national command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft. Often however such releases are given automatically or are controlled by local agreements allowing "free-flow" departures. When weather or extremely high demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may be ground "stops" (or "slot delays") or re-routes may be necessary to ensure the system does not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of the clearance delivery position is to ensure that the aircraft have the proper route and slot time. This information is also coordinated with the en-route center and the ground controller in order to ensure the aircraft reaches the runway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command center. At some airports the clearance delivery controller also plans aircraft pushbacks and engine starts and is known as Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this position is particularly important at heavily congested airports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock.
Approach and terminal control
Inside the Potomac TRACON
Main article: Terminal Control Center
Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to as Approach or Terminal Control; in the U.S., it is often still referred to as a TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach CONtrol) facility. While every airport varies, terminal controllers usually handle traffic in a 30 to 50 nautical mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the airport. Where there are many busy airports in close proximity, one single terminal control may service all the airports. The actual airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned to a terminal control are based on factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain, and vary widely from airport to airport: a large and complex example is the London Terminal Control Centre which controls traffic for five main London airports up to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and out to 100+ nautical miles.
Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.
Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. In this case, the en-route center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly with the tower on the airport and vector inbound aircraft to a position from where they can land visually. At some of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar procedural approach service to arriving aircraft handed over from a radar unit before they are visual to land. Some units also have a dedicated approach unit which can provide the procedural approach service either all the time or for any periods of radar outage for any reason.
En-route, center, or area control
Controllers at work at the Washington Air Route Traffic Control Center.
Main article: Area Control Center
ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under one of two sets of rules for separation: Visual Flight Rules (VFR) or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating under the different sets of rules. While IFR flights are under positive control, in the US VFR pilots can request flight following, which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions.
En-route air traffic controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also provide air traffic control services to many smaller airports around the country, including clearance off of the ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Controllers adhere to a set of separation standards that define the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These distances vary depending on the equipment and procedures used in providing ATC services.
General characteristics
En-route air traffic controllers work in facilities called Area Control Centers, each of which is commonly referred to as a "Center". The United States uses the equivalent term Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). Each center is responsible for many thousands of square miles of airspace (known as a Flight Information Region) and for the airports within that airspace. Centers control IFR aircraft from the time they depart an airport or terminal area's airspace to the time they arrive at another airport or terminal area's airspace. Centers may also "pick up" VFR aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them into the IFR system. These aircraft must, however, remain VFR until the Center provides a clearance.
Center controllers are responsible for climbing the aircraft to their requested altitude while, at the same time, ensuring that the aircraft is properly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate area. Additionally, the aircraft must be placed in a flow consistent with the aircraft's route of flight. This effort is complicated by crossing traffic, severe weather, special missions that require large airspace allocations, and traffic density. When the aircraft approaches its destination, the center is responsible for meeting altitude restrictions by specific points, as well as providing many destination airports with a traffic flow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being "bunched together". These "flow restrictions" often begin in the middle of the route, as controllers will position aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the aircraft are close to their destination they are sequenced.
As an aircraft reaches the boundary of a Center's control area it is "handed off" or "handed over" to the next Area Control Center. In some cases this "hand-off" process involves a transfer of identification and details between controllers so that air traffic control services can be provided in a seamless manner; in other cases local agreements may allow "silent handovers" such that the receiving center does not require any co-ordination if traffic is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand-off, the aircraft is given a frequency change and begins talking to the next controller. This process continues until the aircraft is handed off to a terminal controller ("approach").
Radar coverage
Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typically use long range radar that has the capability, at higher altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of the radar antenna. They may also use TRACON radar data to control when it provides a better "picture" of the traffic or when it can fill in a portion of the area not covered by the long range radar.
In the U.S. system, at higher altitudes, over 90% of the U.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by multiple radar systems; however, coverage may be inconsistent at lower altitudes used by unpressurized aircraft due to high terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may require numerous radar systems to cover the airspace assigned to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports from aircraft flying below the floor of radar coverage. This results in a large amount of data being available to the controller. To address this, automation systems have been designed that consolidate the radar data for the controller. This consolidation includes eliminating duplicate radar returns, ensuring the best radar for each geographical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in an effective format.
Centers also exercise control over traffic travelling over the world's ocean areas. These areas are also FIRs. Because there are no radar systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers provide ATC services using procedural control. These procedures use aircraft position reports, time, altitude, distance, and speed to ensure separation. Controllers record information on flight progress strips and in specially developed oceanic computer systems as aircraft report positions. This process requires that aircraft be separated by greater distances, which reduces the overall capacity for any given route.
Some Air Navigation Service Providers (e.g Airservices Australia, The Federal Aviation Administration, NAVCANADA, etc.) have implemented Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveillance capability. This new technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar "finding" a target by interrogating the transponder. The ADS-equipped aircraft sends a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. Normally, ADS operates in the "contract" mode where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft, more frequent reports are not commonly requested except in emergency situations.. ADS is significant because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g. over water). Computerized radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS inputs as part of the display. This technology is currently used in portions of the North Atlantic and the Pacific by a variety of States who share responsibility for the control of this airspace.
Flight traffic mapping
All inbound and outbound traffic for Minneapolis/St. Paul (MSP) airport on a weekday at 12:52 PM CDT from Animated Atlas: Flight Traffic over North America
The mapping of flights in real-time is based on the air traffic control system. In 1991, data on the location of aircraft was made available by the Federal Aviation Administration to the airline industry. The National Business Aviation Association (NBAA), the General Aviation Manufacturers Association, the Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association, the Helicopter Association International, and the National Air Transportation Association petitioned the FAA to make ASDI information available on a "need-to-know" basis. Subsequently, NBAA advocated the broad-scale dissemination of air traffic data. The Aircraft Situational Display to Industry (ASDI) system now conveys up-to-date flight information to the airline industry and the public. Three companies distribute ASDI information, FlightExplorer, FlightView, and FlyteComm. Each company maintains a website that provides free updated information to the public on flight status. Stand-alone programs are also available for displaying the geographic location of airborne IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) air traffic anywhere in the FAA air traffic system. Positions are reported for both commercial and general aviation traffic. The programs can overlay air traffic with a wide selection of maps such as, geo-political boundaries, air traffic control center boundaries, high altitude jet routes, satellite cloud and radar imagery.
Problems
Traffic
For more information see Air traffic flow management.
The day-to-day problems faced by the air traffic control system are primarily related to the volume of air traffic demand placed on the system, and weather. Several factors dictate the amount of traffic that can land at an airport in a given amount of time. Each landing aircraft must touch down, slow, and exit the runway before the next crosses the end of the runway. This process requires at least one and up to four minutes for each aircraft. Allowing for departures between arrivals, each runway can thus handle about 30 arrivals per hour. A large airport with two arrival runways can handle about 60 arrivals per hour in good weather. Problems begin when airlines schedule more arrivals into an airport than can be physically handled, or when delays elsewhere cause groups of aircraft that would otherwise be separated in time to arrive simultaneously. Aircraft must then be delayed in the air by holding over specified locations until they may be safely sequenced to the runway. Up until the 1990s, holding, which has significant environmental and cost implications, was a routine occurrence at many airports. Advances in computers now allow the sequencing of planes hours in advance. Thus, planes may be delayed before they even take off (by being given a "slot"), or may reduce power in flight and proceed more slowly thus significantly reducing the amount of holding.
Weather
Beyond runway capacity issues, weather is a major factor in traffic capacity. Rain or ice and snow on the runway cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space between landing aircraft. Fog also requires a decrease in the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay for holding aircraft. If more aircraft are scheduled than can be safely and efficiently held in the air, a ground delay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the ground before departure due to conditions at the arrival airport.
In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is thunderstorms, which present a variety of hazards to aircraft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to aircraft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thunderstorms.
Much money has been spent on creating software to streamline this process. However, at some ACCs, air traffic controllers still record data for each flight on strips of paper and personally coordinate their paths. In newer sites, these flight progress strips have been replaced by electronic data presented on computer screens. As new equipment is brought in, more and more sites are upgrading away from paper flight strips.
Call signs
A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive call signs. These are permanently allocated by ICAO (pronounced "eye-kay-oh") on request usually to scheduled flights and some air forces for military flights. They are written callsigns with 3-letter combination like KLM, AAL, SWA , BAW , DLH followed by the flight number, like AAL872, BAW018. As such they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or Radio-telephony callsigns used on the radio contact between pilots and Air Traffic Control not always identical with the written ones. For example BAW stands for British Airways but on the radio you will only hear the word Speedbird instead. By default, the callsign for any other flight is the registration number (tail number) of the aircraft, such as "N12345" or "C-GABC". The term tail number is because a registration number is usually painted somewhere on the tail of a plane, yet this is not a rule. Registration numbers may appear on the engines, anywhere on the fuselage, and often on the wings. The short Radio-telephony callsigns for these tail numbers is the first letter followed by the last two, like C-BC spoken as Charlie-Bravo-Charlie for C-GABC or the last 3 letters only like ABC spoken Alpha-Bravo-Charlie for C-GABC or the last 3 numbers like 345 spoken as tree-fower-fife for N12345. In the United States the abbreviation of callsigns is required to be a prefix (such as aircraft type, aircraft manufacturer, or first letter of registration) followed by the last three characters of the callsign. This abbreviation is only allowed after communications has been established in each sector.
The flight number part is decided by the aircraft operator. In this arrangement, an identical call sign might well be used for the same scheduled journey each day it is operated, even if the departure time varies a little across different days of the week. The call sign of the return flight often differs only by the final digit from the outbound flight. Generally, airline flight numbers are even if eastbound, and odd if westbound. In order to reduce the possibility of two callsigns on one frequency at any time sounding too similar, a number of airlines, particularly in Europe, have started using alphanumeric callsigns that are not based on flight numbers. For example DLH23LG, spoken as lufthansa-two-tree-lima-golf. Additionally it is the right of the air traffic controller to change the 'audio' callsign for the period the flight is in his sector if there is a risk of confusion, usually choosing the tail number instead.
Before around 1980 IATA and ICAO were using the same 2-letter callsigns. Due to the larger number of new airlines after deregulation ICAO established the 3-letter callsigns as mentioned above. The IATA callsigns are currently used in aerodromes on the announcement tables but never used any longer in Air Traffic Control. For example, AA is the IATA callsign for the ICAO — ATC equivalent AAL. Other examples include LY/ELY for El Al, DL/DAL for Delta Air Lines, LH/DLH for Lufthansa etc.
Technology
Many technologies are used in air traffic control systems. Primary and secondary radar are used to enhance a controller's "situational awareness" within his assigned airspace — all types of aircraft send back primary echoes of varying sizes to controllers' screens as radar energy is bounced off their skins, and transponder-equipped aircraft reply to secondary radar interrogations by giving an ID (Mode A), an altitude (Mode C) and/or a unique callsign (Mode S). Certain types of weather may also register on the radar screen.
These inputs, added to data from other radars, are correlated to build the air situation. Some basic processing occurs on the radar tracks, such as calculating ground speed and magnetic headings.
Other correlations with electronic flight plans are also available to controllers on modern operational display systems.
Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further:
Conflict Alert (CA): a tool that checks possible conflicting trajectories and alerts the controller. The most common used is the STCA (Short Term CA) that is activated about 2 minutes prior the loss of separation. The algorithms used may also provide in some systems a possible vectoring solution, that is, the way to turn or descend/climb the aircraft in order to avoid infringing the minimum safety distance or altitude clearance.
Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW): a tool that alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be flying too low to the ground or will impact terrain based on its current altitude and heading.
System Coordination (SYSCO) to enable controller to negotiate the release of flights from one sector to another.
Area Penetration Warning (APW) to inform a controller that a flight will penetrate a restricted area.
Arrival and Departure manager to help sequence the takeoff and landing of aircraft.
Converging Runway Display Aid (CRDA) enables Approach controllers to run two final approaches that intersect and make sure that go arounds are minimized
Center TRACON Automation System (CTAS) is a suite of human centered decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), Collaborative Arrival Planning (CAP), Direct-To (D2), En Route Descent Advisor (EDA),and Multi Center TMA.
Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), a CTAS tool, is an en route decision support tool that automates time based metering solutions to provide an upper limit of aircraft to a TRACON from the Center over a set period of time. Schedules are determined that will not exceed the specified arrival rate and controllers use the scheduled times to provide the appropriate delay to arrivals while in the en route domain. This results in an overall reduction in en route delays and also moves the delays to more efficient airspace (higher altitudes) than occur if holding near the TRACON boundary is required to not overload the TRACON controllers. TMA is operational at most en route air route traffic control centers (ARTCCs) and continues to be enhanced to address more complex traffic situations (e.g. Adjacent Center Metering (ACM) and En Route Departure Capability (EDC))
passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), a CTAS tool, provides runway assignment and sequence number advisories to terminal controllers to improve the arrival rate at congested airports. pFAST was deployed and operational at five US TRACONs before being cancelled. NASA research included an Active FAST capability that also provided vector and speed advisories to implement the runway and sequence advisories.
User Request Evaluation Tool (URET) takes paper strips out of the equation for En Route controllers at ARTCCs by providing a display that shows all aircraft that are either in or currently routed into the sector. URET provides conflict advisories up to 30 minutes in advance and has a suite of assistance tools that assist in evaluating resolution options and pilot requests.
Mode S: provides a data downlink of flight parameters via Secondary Surveillance Radars allowing radar processing systems and therefore controllers to see various data on a flight, including airframe unique id, indicated airspeed and flight director selected level, amongst others.
CPDLC: Controller Pilot Data Link Communications — allows digital messages to be sent between controllers and pilots, avoiding the need to use radiotelephony. It is especially useful in areas where difficult-to-use HF radiotelephony was previously used for communication with aircraft, e.g oceans. This is currently in use in various parts of the world including the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
ADS-B: Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast — provides a data downlink of various flight parameters to air traffic control systems via the Transponder (1090 MHz) and reception of those data by other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important is the aircraft's latitude, longitude and level: such data can be utilized to create a radar-like display of aircraft for controllers and thus allows a form of pseudo-radar control to be done in areas where the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the grounds of low traffic levels, or technically not feasible (e.g. oceans). This is currently in use in Australia and parts of the Pacific Ocean and Alaska.
The Electronic Flight Strip system (e-strip): A system of electronic flight strips replacing the old paper strips developed by NAV CANADA, Frequentis, Avibit, SAAB etc. E-strips allows controllers to manage electronic flight data online using touch-sensitive display screens resulting in system feed of clearances, fewer manual functions and a greater focus on safety. The NAV CANADA system has been sold to the Air Navigation Services Providers in the United Kingdom and Denmark.
The Departure Manager (DMAN): A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a planned departure flow with the goal to maintain an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce queuing at holding point and distribute the information to various stakeholders at the airport (i.e. the airline, ground handling and Air Traffic Control (ATC)). The tool is developed to give substantial environmental and safety benefits in peak hour operation.
Major accidents
Failures in the system have caused delays; in some cases failures cause crashes. The most recent crash happened on September 29, 2006 near Alta Floresta, over the Amazon in Brazil, when Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 hit a private Embraer Legacy jet, which belonged to the American company ExcelAire and was being flown by two American pilots going at the opposite direction.
On July 1, 2002 a Tupolev Tu-154 and Boeing 757 collided above Überlingen near the boundary between German and Swiss-controlled airspace when a Skyguide-employed controller, unaware that the flight was receiving instruction from the on-board automatic Traffic Collision Avoidance System software to climb, instructed the southbound Tupolev to descend. While the northbound Boeing followed their TCAS prompt to descend, the Tupolev followed the controller's instruction. The result was a mid-air collision in which all passengers and crew on both flights died. Skyguide company publicity had previously acknowledged that the relatively small size of Swiss airspace makes real-time cross-boundary liaison with adjoining authorities particularly important. See 2002 Überlingen Mid-Air Collision for more on this accident. As of 2007 air traffic controllers have no way of knowing if or when the TCAS system is issuing resolution advisories to pilots. They also do not know what the advisory is telling the pilots. Therefore, pilots are supposed to immediately follow TCAS resolution advisories and report them as soon as possible. Consequently, they should ignore ATC instructions until they have reported to the ground that they are clear of the conflict.
The deadliest mid-air crash, the 1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision over India, partly resulted from the fact that the New Delhi-area airspace was shared by departures and arrivals, when in most cases departures and arrivals would use separate airspaces.
Other fatal collisions between airliners have occurred over Namibia and former Yugoslavia. When a risk of collision is identified by aircrew or ground controllers an "air miss" or "air prox" (air proximity) report can be filed with the air traffic control authority concerned. The deadliest collision between airliners took place on the ground, on March 27, 1977, in what is known as the Tenerife disaster.
The FAA has spent over USD$3 billion on software, but a fully-automated system is still over the horizon. In 2002 the UK brought a new area control centre into service at Swanwick, in Hampshire, relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton in Middlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software from Lockheed-Martin predominates at Swanwick. The Swanwick facility, however, was initially been troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns.
Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and traffic service providers (ATSPs)
An Air Navigation Service Provider — The air navigation service provider is the authority directly responsible for providing both visual and non-visual aids to navigation within a specific airspace in compliance with, but not limited to, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Annexes 2, 6, 10 and 11; ICAO Documents 4444 and 9426; and, other international, multi-national, and national policy, agreements or regulations.
An Air Traffic Service Provider is the relevant authority designated by the State responsible for providing air traffic services in the airspace concerned — where airspace is classified as Type A through G airspace. Air traffic service is a generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control service (area control service, approach control service or aerodrome control service).
Both ANSPs and ATSPs can be public, private or corporatized organisations and examples of the different legal models exist throughout the world today. The world's ANSPs are united in and represented by the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation based at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands.
The regulatory function remains the responsibility of the State and can be exercised by Government and/or independent Safety, Airspace and Economic Regulators depending on the national institutional arrangements.
In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) provides this service to all aircraft in the National Airspace System (NAS). With the exception of facilities operated by the Department of Defense (DoD), the FAA is responsible for all aspects of U.S. Air Traffic Control including hiring and training controllers, although there are contract towers located in many parts of the country. DoD facilities are generally staffed by military personnel and operate separately but concurrently with FAA facilities, under similar rules and procedures. A contract tower is an Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) that performs the same function as an FAA-run ATCT but is staffed by employees of a private company (Martin State Airport in Maryland is an example). In Canada, Air Traffic Control is provided by NAV CANADA, a private, non-share capital corporation that operates Canada's civil air navigation service.
Austria - Austro Control
Australia - Airservices Australia (State Owned Corporation) and the Royal Australian Air Force.
Belgium - Belgocontrol
Brazil - Department of Air Space Control (Military Authority) and the National Agency of Civil Aviation
Bulgaria - Air Traffic Services Authority
Canada - NAV CANADA - formerly provided by Transport Canada
Central America - Corporación Centroamericana de Servicios de Navegación Aerea
Guatemala - DGAC (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil)
El Salvador
Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Belize
Colombia - (UAEAC)Aeronáutica Civil Colombiana
Croatia - Hrvatska kontrola zračne plovidbe (Croatia Control Ltd.)
Cuba - IACC (Instituto de Aeronáutica Civil de Cuba)
Czech Republic - Řízení letového provozu ČR
Denmark - Naviair (Danish ATC)
Dominican Republic - DGAC (Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil)
Estonia - Estonian Air Navigation Services
Europe - Eurocontrol - (European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation)
Finland - Finavia
France - Direction Générale de l'Aviation Civile (DGAC) (Government body)
Germany - Deutsche Flugsicherung (German ATC)
Greece - Hellenic Civil Aviation Authority (Hellenic ATC)
Hong Kong - Civil Aviation Department
Hungary - HungaroControl Magyar Légiforgalmi Szolgálat Zrt. (HungaroControl Hungarian Air Navigation Services Pte. Ltd. Co.)
Iceland - ISAVIA
Indonesia - Angkasa Pura II
Ireland - IAA (Irish Aviation Authority)
India - Airports Authority of India (AAI) (under Ministry of Civil Aviation, Government Of India)
Italy - ENAV (Italian ATC)
Jamaica - JCAA (Jamaica Civil Aviation Authority)
Latvia - LGS (Latvian ATC)
Lithuania - ANS (Lithuanian ATC)
Macedonia - DGCA (Macedonian ATC)
Mexico - Servicios a la Navegación en el Espacio Aéreo Mexicano
Netherlands - LVNL (Dutch ATC)
New Zealand - Airways Corporation (State Owned Enterprise)
Norway - Avinor (State-owned private company)
Pakistan - Civil Aviation Authority (under Government of Pakistan)
Philippines - Air Transportation Office (ATO) (under the Philippine Government)
Poland - PANSA - Polish Air Navigation Services Agency
Portugal - NAV - NAV (Portuguese ATC)
Singapore - CAAS (Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore)
Serbia - Nacionalna sluzba letenja
Slovakia - Letové prevádzkové služby Slovenskej republiky
Slovenia - Slovenia Control
South Africa - Air Traffic and Navigation Services , [2]
Spain - AENA (Spanish ATC and Airports)
Sweden - The LFV Group (Swedish ATC)
Switzerland - Skyguide
Trinidad and Tobago - TTCAA (Trinidad and Tobago Civil Aviation Authority)
Turkey - DGCA (Turkish Directorate General of Civil Aviation)
United Kingdom - National Air Traffic Services (49% State Owned Public-Private Partnership)
United States - Federal Aviation Administration (Government Body)
Ukraine - Ukrainian State Air Traffic Service Enterprise (UkSATSE)
Venezuela - INAC (Instituto Nacional de Aviación Civil)
Proposed changes
In the United States, some alterations to traffic control procedures are being examined.
The Next Generation Air Transportation System examines how to overhaul the United States national airspace system.
Free flight is a developing air traffic control method that uses no centralized control (e.g. air traffic controllers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and automatically in a distributed way using computer communication to ensure the required separation between aircraft.[1]
See also
Air safety
Air traffic controller
Airspace
Area Control Center (ACC)
Australian Air Traffic Control
Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B)
Aviation light signals
European Operational Concept Validation Methodology (E-OCVM)
Flight level (FL)
Flight planning
Flight progress strip
Flight traffic mapping
Global Air Traffic Management
IFATCA (International Federation of ATC Associations)
Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization
Tenerife disaster, (TFN)
Terminal Control Center
Tower en route control (TEC)
Zagreb mid-air collision
References
^ Free Flight
External links
The ATC Network - The online portal for ATC professionals
History
U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission - Air Traffic Control
Internet services
SKYbrary: The single point of reference in the network of aviation safety knowledge
Listen to ATC radio 24/7 Live Aviation Radio
Map of airborne flights controlled by US ATC
Audio of interview with US terminal area controller
v • d • eCommercial air travel
Airlines
List of airlines • List of passenger airlines
Industry associations
IATA • ICAO • ISTAT
Airline alliances
Oneworld • Star Alliance • SkyTeam
Ticketing
Airline Reservations System • Airline ticket • Airline timetable • Boarding pass • Codeshare agreement • Continent pass • Electronic ticket • Frequent flyer program • Government contract flight • Open-jaw ticket • Red-eye flight • Round-the-world ticket • Standby • Travel search engine
Airport
Airline hub • Airport • Airport lounge • Domestic airport • International airport • Regional airport
Luggage
Bag tag • Baggage allowance • Baggage carousel • Baggage claim • Baggage handler • Checked baggage • Lost luggage
Check-in
Airstair • Airport Check-in • Airport security • Boarding • Gate
Seating
Airline seat • First class • Business class • Economy class • Travel class
In flight
Aircraft lavatory • Airline meal • Airsickness bag • In-flight entertainment
Crew
Deadheading • Flight attendant • Pilot
Immigration
Arrival Card • Departure Card
Safety
Air traffic control • Aircraft safety card • Airline security • Airport authority • Airport police • Civil Aviation Authority • Flight data recorder • In-flight safety demonstration • Overwing exits
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control"
Categories: Air traffic control Aviation terminology Radar
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Wednesday, July 16, 2008
Instrument Flight rules (IRF)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Instrument flight rules (IFR) are a set of regulations and procedures for flying aircraft whereby navigation and obstacle clearance is maintained with reference to aircraft instruments only, while separation from other aircraft is provided by Air Traffic Control. In layman's terms, a pilot who is rated for IFR can keep a plane in controlled flight solely on the data provided by his instruments, even if that pilot cannot see anything (useful) out the cockpit windows; indeed, one of the benefits of these regulations is the ability to fly through clouds, which is otherwise not allowed.
IFR is an alternative to visual flight rules (VFR), where the pilot is ultimately responsible for navigation, obstacle clearance and traffic separation using the see-and-avoid concept. The vast majority of commercial traffic (any flight for hire) and all scheduled air carriers operate exclusively under IFR. Commercial aircraft providing sight seeing flights, aerial photography, or lift services for parachute jumping usually operate under VFR.
Separation
This article or section deals primarily with the United States and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed separation. The most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of meteorological visibility conditions. In controlled airspace, Air Traffic Control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR and known VFR aircraft by applying a flight clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude differences between aircraft. ATC monitors IFR flights by relying either on radar or aircraft position reports. Aircraft position reports are traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly also as electronic data exchanges. Aircraft position reports are not necessary if ATC has an aircraft in radar contact. In the United States a flight operating under IFR is required to fall back to position reports if advised radar contact lost.
IFR flights require an ATC clearance for each part of the flight. A clearance always specifies a clearance limit, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such as frequencies and transponder codes. An aircraft operating VFR must also obtain a clearance to enter class B and class C airspace, and is required to maintain an assigned heading or altitude restriction as long as it does not conflict with the safe operation of the aircraft.
In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations.
In the United States and the Southern Domestic Airspace of Canada (SDA), airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as class A, requiring an IFR clearance for all aircraft. In other countries class A airspace begins higher or lower. For example, in France class A airspace begins at 19,500 feet (5,850 meters).
In the United States even when on a filed IFR flight plan, if conditions permit the pilot is responsible to maintain a watch for, and avoid other air traffic and obstructions. Separation may also be referred to as 'protection'.
Weather
The main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). The weather is considered to be IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements for Visual Meteorological Conditions. To operate safely in IMC , a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight instruments, and ATC provides separation.
VMC Flying under IFR
It is important to not to confuse IFR with IMC. The vast majority of IFR flying is conducted in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Any time a flight is operating in VMC, the crew is responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic, however, since the flight is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules, ATC still provides separation services.
During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, and as such flying through clouds is permitted. There are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off and land; these will vary according to the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and according to qualifications of the crew. For example, landing at mountain airports such as Reno (KRNO) offer significantly different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway, but from opposite directions. Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than a flight approaching from the south, because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport. This higher altitude allows a flight crew to start a climb earlier in case landing is not feasible.
Although large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as TCAS, these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.
Navigation
Under IFR, the primary means of navigation are either via radio beacons on the ground, such as VORs and NDBs, or GPS. In areas of radar coverage, ATC may also assign headings to IFR aircraft, also known as radar vectors. Radar vectors are the primary method for ATC to provide separation between aircraft for landing.
Modern Flight Management Systems have evolved sufficiently to allow a crew to plan a flight not only as to route and altitude, but to specific time of arrival at specific locations. This capability is used in several trial projects experimenting with four dimensional approach clearances for commercial aircraft, with time as the fourth dimension. These clearances allow ATC to optimize the arrival of aircraft at major airports, which increases airport capacity, and uses less fuel providing monetary and environmental benefits to airlines and the public at large respectively.
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
ADS-B
Procedures
Main article: flight procedure
There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. For each stage there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in case of communication failure (lost-comm) with ATC, with default altitudes and headings for every stage. , and any modifications to the route. Here is an example of an IFR clearance, for a Cessna aircraft traveling from Palo Alto airport (KPAO) to Stockton airport (KSCK).
"Cessna 6253G is cleared to Stockton Airport. After departure, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport. Radar Vectors San Jose, Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct. Climb and maintain 3,000 expect 5,000 five minutes after departure. Departure frequency is 121.3, squawk 4263." Note: Not to be used for Real World Navigation
Detailed explanation:
"Cessna 6253G"
Verifies that only this specific aircraft is cleared.
"is cleared to Stockton Airport."
Clearance Limit: the farthest destination the aircraft is allowed to go under IMC (in most cases it is the destination airport).
"After departure, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport."
The pilot is expected to execute the turn to 060° without further ATC prompting within one mile of the departure airport.
"Radar Vectors San Jose"
The departure controller will provide directional guidance to the San Jose VOR.
"Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct."
After arriving at the San Jose VOR, the pilot will likely resume navigation without ATC prompts along the described airways and intersection to the Manteca VOR and then direct to the destination airport.
"Climb and maintain 3,000 ..."
After takeoff, climb to an altitude of 3000 feet above sea level.
"... expect 5,000 five minutes after departure."
Your final altitude assignment is probably going to be 5000 feet above sea level. However, you must follow actual ATC altitude assignments throughout the flight. This portion of the clearance provides a backup if communications are lost, allowing you to proceed to climb and maintain 5000 feet.
"Departure frequency is 121.3, ..."
Contact with NORCAL Departure on the specified communication frequency, after Palo Alto Tower tells you to switch.
"... squawk 4263."
Program your transponder to 4263 so that ATC can positively identify you on radar.
Departures are described in an IFR clearance issued by ATC prior to takeoff. The departure clearance may contain an assigned heading, one or more waypoints, and an initial altitude to fly. The clearance can also specify a departure procedure (DP), or standard instrument departure (SID) that should be followed unless "NO DP" is specified in the notes section of the filed flight plan.
En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called airways. Aircraft with appropriate navigational equipment such as GPS, are also often cleared for a direct-to routing, where only the destination, or a few navigational waypoints are used to describe the route that the flight will follow. ATC will assign altitudes in its initial clearance or amendments thereto, and navigational charts indicate minimum safe altitudes for airways.
The approach portion of an IFR flight may begin with a Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR), describing common routes to fly to arrive at an initial approach fix (IAF) from which an instrument approach commences. Instrument approaches are categorized as precision and non-precision. Despite the names, a precision approach simply indicates that vertical guidance (as well as lateral guidance) is being used. non-precision indicates only lateral guidance.
In either case, an instrument approach will terminate either in visual conditions sufficient for a normal landing of the airplane, or in a missed approach if such conditions are not encountered in time. The point at which the crew of an aircraft has to make a decision to either proceed visually, or "miss" the approach is called either the Decision Altitude (DA) or Decision Height (DH) for precision approaches, and missed approach point (MAP) for non-precision approaches. During precision approaches the altitude of the aircraft is determined by the navigational instruments. For non-precision approaches the crew will descend to specific altitudes during the approach procedure, with the final altitude termed the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).
Some commercial aircraft are equipped with automatic landing systems that allow the aircraft to land without transitioning from instruments to visual conditions for a normal landing. Such Autoland operations require specialized equipment, procedures and training, and involve the aircraft, airport, and the crew. Autoland is the only way some major airports such as Paris CDG remain operational every day of the year. Some modern aircraft are equipped with enhanced vision systems based on infrared sensors, that provide a day-like visual environment and allow operations in conditions and at airports that would otherwise not be suitable for a landing. Commercial aircraft also frequently use such equipment for takeoffs when takeoff minimums are not met.[1]
Documents describing the approach procedure are also frequently called approach plates in reference to the plate-like appearance of single-page sheet that it is printed on.
An instrument approach that terminates in a missed approach will continue using missed approach procedure information shown on the approach procedure. Typically it describes a transition to a nearby navigational fix, from which the instrument approach can be attempted again. In practice an approach that terminates in a missed approach rarely flies the missed approach procedure as published. Instead, ATC will assign headings and altitudes that will weave the aircraft into the arriving traffic for a repeated approach attempt. The crew may also request an alternate destination, either a previously stated alternate airport, or other suitable airport considering the prevailing weather conditions.
Qualifications
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an instrument rating, and must meet currency of experience requirements. In the United States, these currency of experience requirements include six instrument approaches, NAVAID intercepting and tracking, and holding procedures in the past six months. The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight, and the related navigational equipment must have been inspected within a specific period of time prior to the instrument flight.
The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S. In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met. The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace. The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules. As a partial alternative to the instrument rating, the UK issues an "IMC rating", the privileges of which include flight under IFR in controlled (classes D and E) airspace and flight outside controlled airspace in instrument meteorological conditions.
References
^ For example, Southwest Airlines flies Head Up Display (HUD) equipped Boeing 737 aircraft to fog-prone airports such as Sacramento International (KSMF), allowing flights to take off when they would otherwise be unable to do so.
External links
(English) FAA website
(English) Hear audio of a US instrument rating checkride - Part 1
(French) (English) ORBIFLY : FAA School in Europe, specialized in CPL & IFR trainings
(French) (English) Free newsletter, by Orbifly, for FAA Pilots (French and English)
See also
Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15A)
Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8261-1A)
Flight instruments
Visual flight rules (VFR)
Special visual flight rules (SVFR)
VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Airspace classes
Helmet fire in student pilots
Autoland
Bárány chair
Approach plate
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules"
Categories: Aviation terminology Airport terminology
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements since June 2008 Articles with limited geographic scope USA-centric
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Instrument flight rules (IFR) are a set of regulations and procedures for flying aircraft whereby navigation and obstacle clearance is maintained with reference to aircraft instruments only, while separation from other aircraft is provided by Air Traffic Control. In layman's terms, a pilot who is rated for IFR can keep a plane in controlled flight solely on the data provided by his instruments, even if that pilot cannot see anything (useful) out the cockpit windows; indeed, one of the benefits of these regulations is the ability to fly through clouds, which is otherwise not allowed.
IFR is an alternative to visual flight rules (VFR), where the pilot is ultimately responsible for navigation, obstacle clearance and traffic separation using the see-and-avoid concept. The vast majority of commercial traffic (any flight for hire) and all scheduled air carriers operate exclusively under IFR. Commercial aircraft providing sight seeing flights, aerial photography, or lift services for parachute jumping usually operate under VFR.
Separation
This article or section deals primarily with the United States and does not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed separation. The most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of meteorological visibility conditions. In controlled airspace, Air Traffic Control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR and known VFR aircraft by applying a flight clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude differences between aircraft. ATC monitors IFR flights by relying either on radar or aircraft position reports. Aircraft position reports are traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly also as electronic data exchanges. Aircraft position reports are not necessary if ATC has an aircraft in radar contact. In the United States a flight operating under IFR is required to fall back to position reports if advised radar contact lost.
IFR flights require an ATC clearance for each part of the flight. A clearance always specifies a clearance limit, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such as frequencies and transponder codes. An aircraft operating VFR must also obtain a clearance to enter class B and class C airspace, and is required to maintain an assigned heading or altitude restriction as long as it does not conflict with the safe operation of the aircraft.
In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations.
In the United States and the Southern Domestic Airspace of Canada (SDA), airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as class A, requiring an IFR clearance for all aircraft. In other countries class A airspace begins higher or lower. For example, in France class A airspace begins at 19,500 feet (5,850 meters).
In the United States even when on a filed IFR flight plan, if conditions permit the pilot is responsible to maintain a watch for, and avoid other air traffic and obstructions. Separation may also be referred to as 'protection'.
Weather
The main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). The weather is considered to be IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements for Visual Meteorological Conditions. To operate safely in IMC , a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight instruments, and ATC provides separation.
VMC Flying under IFR
It is important to not to confuse IFR with IMC. The vast majority of IFR flying is conducted in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Any time a flight is operating in VMC, the crew is responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic, however, since the flight is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules, ATC still provides separation services.
During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, and as such flying through clouds is permitted. There are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off and land; these will vary according to the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and according to qualifications of the crew. For example, landing at mountain airports such as Reno (KRNO) offer significantly different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway, but from opposite directions. Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than a flight approaching from the south, because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport. This higher altitude allows a flight crew to start a climb earlier in case landing is not feasible.
Although large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as TCAS, these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.
Navigation
Under IFR, the primary means of navigation are either via radio beacons on the ground, such as VORs and NDBs, or GPS. In areas of radar coverage, ATC may also assign headings to IFR aircraft, also known as radar vectors. Radar vectors are the primary method for ATC to provide separation between aircraft for landing.
Modern Flight Management Systems have evolved sufficiently to allow a crew to plan a flight not only as to route and altitude, but to specific time of arrival at specific locations. This capability is used in several trial projects experimenting with four dimensional approach clearances for commercial aircraft, with time as the fourth dimension. These clearances allow ATC to optimize the arrival of aircraft at major airports, which increases airport capacity, and uses less fuel providing monetary and environmental benefits to airlines and the public at large respectively.
Required Navigation Performance (RNP)
ADS-B
Procedures
Main article: flight procedure
There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach. For each stage there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in case of communication failure (lost-comm) with ATC, with default altitudes and headings for every stage. , and any modifications to the route. Here is an example of an IFR clearance, for a Cessna aircraft traveling from Palo Alto airport (KPAO) to Stockton airport (KSCK).
"Cessna 6253G is cleared to Stockton Airport. After departure, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport. Radar Vectors San Jose, Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct. Climb and maintain 3,000 expect 5,000 five minutes after departure. Departure frequency is 121.3, squawk 4263." Note: Not to be used for Real World Navigation
Detailed explanation:
"Cessna 6253G"
Verifies that only this specific aircraft is cleared.
"is cleared to Stockton Airport."
Clearance Limit: the farthest destination the aircraft is allowed to go under IMC (in most cases it is the destination airport).
"After departure, turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport."
The pilot is expected to execute the turn to 060° without further ATC prompting within one mile of the departure airport.
"Radar Vectors San Jose"
The departure controller will provide directional guidance to the San Jose VOR.
"Victor-334, SUNOL, Victor-195, Manteca, direct."
After arriving at the San Jose VOR, the pilot will likely resume navigation without ATC prompts along the described airways and intersection to the Manteca VOR and then direct to the destination airport.
"Climb and maintain 3,000 ..."
After takeoff, climb to an altitude of 3000 feet above sea level.
"... expect 5,000 five minutes after departure."
Your final altitude assignment is probably going to be 5000 feet above sea level. However, you must follow actual ATC altitude assignments throughout the flight. This portion of the clearance provides a backup if communications are lost, allowing you to proceed to climb and maintain 5000 feet.
"Departure frequency is 121.3, ..."
Contact with NORCAL Departure on the specified communication frequency, after Palo Alto Tower tells you to switch.
"... squawk 4263."
Program your transponder to 4263 so that ATC can positively identify you on radar.
Departures are described in an IFR clearance issued by ATC prior to takeoff. The departure clearance may contain an assigned heading, one or more waypoints, and an initial altitude to fly. The clearance can also specify a departure procedure (DP), or standard instrument departure (SID) that should be followed unless "NO DP" is specified in the notes section of the filed flight plan.
En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called airways. Aircraft with appropriate navigational equipment such as GPS, are also often cleared for a direct-to routing, where only the destination, or a few navigational waypoints are used to describe the route that the flight will follow. ATC will assign altitudes in its initial clearance or amendments thereto, and navigational charts indicate minimum safe altitudes for airways.
The approach portion of an IFR flight may begin with a Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR), describing common routes to fly to arrive at an initial approach fix (IAF) from which an instrument approach commences. Instrument approaches are categorized as precision and non-precision. Despite the names, a precision approach simply indicates that vertical guidance (as well as lateral guidance) is being used. non-precision indicates only lateral guidance.
In either case, an instrument approach will terminate either in visual conditions sufficient for a normal landing of the airplane, or in a missed approach if such conditions are not encountered in time. The point at which the crew of an aircraft has to make a decision to either proceed visually, or "miss" the approach is called either the Decision Altitude (DA) or Decision Height (DH) for precision approaches, and missed approach point (MAP) for non-precision approaches. During precision approaches the altitude of the aircraft is determined by the navigational instruments. For non-precision approaches the crew will descend to specific altitudes during the approach procedure, with the final altitude termed the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).
Some commercial aircraft are equipped with automatic landing systems that allow the aircraft to land without transitioning from instruments to visual conditions for a normal landing. Such Autoland operations require specialized equipment, procedures and training, and involve the aircraft, airport, and the crew. Autoland is the only way some major airports such as Paris CDG remain operational every day of the year. Some modern aircraft are equipped with enhanced vision systems based on infrared sensors, that provide a day-like visual environment and allow operations in conditions and at airports that would otherwise not be suitable for a landing. Commercial aircraft also frequently use such equipment for takeoffs when takeoff minimums are not met.[1]
Documents describing the approach procedure are also frequently called approach plates in reference to the plate-like appearance of single-page sheet that it is printed on.
An instrument approach that terminates in a missed approach will continue using missed approach procedure information shown on the approach procedure. Typically it describes a transition to a nearby navigational fix, from which the instrument approach can be attempted again. In practice an approach that terminates in a missed approach rarely flies the missed approach procedure as published. Instead, ATC will assign headings and altitudes that will weave the aircraft into the arriving traffic for a repeated approach attempt. The crew may also request an alternate destination, either a previously stated alternate airport, or other suitable airport considering the prevailing weather conditions.
Qualifications
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an instrument rating, and must meet currency of experience requirements. In the United States, these currency of experience requirements include six instrument approaches, NAVAID intercepting and tracking, and holding procedures in the past six months. The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight, and the related navigational equipment must have been inspected within a specific period of time prior to the instrument flight.
The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S. In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met. The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace. The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules. As a partial alternative to the instrument rating, the UK issues an "IMC rating", the privileges of which include flight under IFR in controlled (classes D and E) airspace and flight outside controlled airspace in instrument meteorological conditions.
References
^ For example, Southwest Airlines flies Head Up Display (HUD) equipped Boeing 737 aircraft to fog-prone airports such as Sacramento International (KSMF), allowing flights to take off when they would otherwise be unable to do so.
External links
(English) FAA website
(English) Hear audio of a US instrument rating checkride - Part 1
(French) (English) ORBIFLY : FAA School in Europe, specialized in CPL & IFR trainings
(French) (English) Free newsletter, by Orbifly, for FAA Pilots (French and English)
See also
Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15A)
Instrument Procedures Handbook (FAA-H-8261-1A)
Flight instruments
Visual flight rules (VFR)
Special visual flight rules (SVFR)
VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
Instrument Landing System (ILS)
Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Airspace classes
Helmet fire in student pilots
Autoland
Bárány chair
Approach plate
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules"
Categories: Aviation terminology Airport terminology
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements since June 2008 Articles with limited geographic scope USA-centric
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of aviation regulations under which a pilot may operate an aircraft in weather conditions sufficient to allow the pilot, by visual reference to the environment outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's attitude, navigate, and maintain safe separation from obstacles such as terrain, buildings, and other aircraft.[citation needed] A VFR flight is a "flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules".[1]
The essential collision safety principle guiding the VFR pilot is "see and avoid." Pilots flying under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned routes or altitudes by air traffic control. Near busier airports, and while operating within certain types of airspace classifications, VFR aircraft in Class B & Class C airspace are required to have a transponder. Governing agencies establish specific requirements for VFR flight, consisting of minimum visibility, distance from clouds, and altitude to ensure that aircraft operating under VFR can be seen from a far enough distance to ensure safety.
From a regulatory perspective, airspace is categorized as controlled and uncontrolled. In controlled airspace known as class B, air traffic control (ATC) will separate VFR aircraft from all other aircraft. In most other types of controlled airspace, ATC is only required to maintain separation to aircraft operating under instrument flight rules (IFR), but workload permitting will assist all aircraft. In the United States, a pilot operating VFR outside of class B airspace can request "VFR traffic following" from air traffic control (ATC). This service is provided by ATC if workload permits it, but is an advisory service only. The responsibility for maintaining separation with other aircraft and proper navigation still remains with the pilot.
Meteorological conditions that meet the minimum requirements for VFR flight are termed visual meteorological conditions (VMC). If they are not met, the conditions are considered instrument meteorological conditions, and a flight may only operate under IFR.
IFR operations have specific training, recency of experience, equipment, and inspection requirements for both the pilot and aircraft, and an IFR flight plan, must usually be filed in advance. For efficiency of operations, some ATC operations will routinely provide "pop-up" IFR clearances for aircraft operating VFR, but that are arriving at an airport that does not meet VMC requirements. For example, in the United States, at least California's Oakland (KOAK), Monterey (KMRY) and Santa Ana (John Wayne, KSNA) airports do so routinely when a low coastal overcast forces instrument approaches while essentially the entire state of California is basking in sunshine.
In the United States, VFR pilots also have an option for requesting Special VFR when meteorological conditions at an airport are below normal VMC minimums, but above Special VFR requirements. Special VFR is only intended to enable takeoffs and landings from airports that are near to VMC conditions, and may only be performed during daytime hours if a pilot does not possess an instrument rating.
VFR flight is not allowed in airspace known as class A, regardless of the meteorological conditions. In the United States, class A airspace begins at 18,000 feet msl, and extends to an altitude of 60,000 feet msl.
Pilot certifications
In the United States and Canada, any certificated pilot who meets specific recency of experience criteria, may operate an airworthy aircraft under VFR.
Controlled visual flight rules
CVFR flight is used in locations where aviation authorities have determined that VFR flight should be allowed, but that ATC separation minimal and guidance are necessary. In this respect, CVFR is similar to Instrument flight rules (IFR) in that ATC will give pilots headings and altitudes at which to fly, and will provide separation and conflict resolution. However, pilots and aircraft do not need to be IFR rated to fly in CVFR areas, which is highly advantageous. An example of airspace where CVFR is common would be Canadian Class B airspace.
The CVFR concept is used in Canada and certain European countries, but not in the U.S., where the Private Pilot certificate itself authorizes the pilot to accept clearances under VFR.
In Israel, for example, VFR does not exist. All visual flights must be performed under CVFR rules.
References
^ Annex 11 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation, 1/11/01, chap. 1, p. 6
VFR rules - publised by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)
See also
Instrument flight rules (IFR)
Special visual flight rules
Night visual flight rules
Barany chair
ADS-B
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_flight_rules"
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2007)Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.
Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of aviation regulations under which a pilot may operate an aircraft in weather conditions sufficient to allow the pilot, by visual reference to the environment outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's attitude, navigate, and maintain safe separation from obstacles such as terrain, buildings, and other aircraft.[citation needed] A VFR flight is a "flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules".[1]
The essential collision safety principle guiding the VFR pilot is "see and avoid." Pilots flying under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned routes or altitudes by air traffic control. Near busier airports, and while operating within certain types of airspace classifications, VFR aircraft in Class B & Class C airspace are required to have a transponder. Governing agencies establish specific requirements for VFR flight, consisting of minimum visibility, distance from clouds, and altitude to ensure that aircraft operating under VFR can be seen from a far enough distance to ensure safety.
From a regulatory perspective, airspace is categorized as controlled and uncontrolled. In controlled airspace known as class B, air traffic control (ATC) will separate VFR aircraft from all other aircraft. In most other types of controlled airspace, ATC is only required to maintain separation to aircraft operating under instrument flight rules (IFR), but workload permitting will assist all aircraft. In the United States, a pilot operating VFR outside of class B airspace can request "VFR traffic following" from air traffic control (ATC). This service is provided by ATC if workload permits it, but is an advisory service only. The responsibility for maintaining separation with other aircraft and proper navigation still remains with the pilot.
Meteorological conditions that meet the minimum requirements for VFR flight are termed visual meteorological conditions (VMC). If they are not met, the conditions are considered instrument meteorological conditions, and a flight may only operate under IFR.
IFR operations have specific training, recency of experience, equipment, and inspection requirements for both the pilot and aircraft, and an IFR flight plan, must usually be filed in advance. For efficiency of operations, some ATC operations will routinely provide "pop-up" IFR clearances for aircraft operating VFR, but that are arriving at an airport that does not meet VMC requirements. For example, in the United States, at least California's Oakland (KOAK), Monterey (KMRY) and Santa Ana (John Wayne, KSNA) airports do so routinely when a low coastal overcast forces instrument approaches while essentially the entire state of California is basking in sunshine.
In the United States, VFR pilots also have an option for requesting Special VFR when meteorological conditions at an airport are below normal VMC minimums, but above Special VFR requirements. Special VFR is only intended to enable takeoffs and landings from airports that are near to VMC conditions, and may only be performed during daytime hours if a pilot does not possess an instrument rating.
VFR flight is not allowed in airspace known as class A, regardless of the meteorological conditions. In the United States, class A airspace begins at 18,000 feet msl, and extends to an altitude of 60,000 feet msl.
Pilot certifications
In the United States and Canada, any certificated pilot who meets specific recency of experience criteria, may operate an airworthy aircraft under VFR.
Controlled visual flight rules
CVFR flight is used in locations where aviation authorities have determined that VFR flight should be allowed, but that ATC separation minimal and guidance are necessary. In this respect, CVFR is similar to Instrument flight rules (IFR) in that ATC will give pilots headings and altitudes at which to fly, and will provide separation and conflict resolution. However, pilots and aircraft do not need to be IFR rated to fly in CVFR areas, which is highly advantageous. An example of airspace where CVFR is common would be Canadian Class B airspace.
The CVFR concept is used in Canada and certain European countries, but not in the U.S., where the Private Pilot certificate itself authorizes the pilot to accept clearances under VFR.
In Israel, for example, VFR does not exist. All visual flights must be performed under CVFR rules.
References
^ Annex 11 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation, 1/11/01, chap. 1, p. 6
VFR rules - publised by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority)
See also
Instrument flight rules (IFR)
Special visual flight rules
Night visual flight rules
Barany chair
ADS-B
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_flight_rules"
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Monday, July 14, 2008
Private Pilot License
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Private Pilot License Card from the United States
A Private Pilot License (PPL) or, in the United States, a Private Pilot Certificate, is a qualification that permits the holder to act as the pilot of an aircraft privately, i.e. not for remuneration. The basic requirements to obtain the license and the privileges it confers are agreed internationally by ICAO, however the actual implementation varies quite widely from country to country. According to ICAO, it is obtained by successfully completing a course of flight training of at least 40 hours duration (45 in the UK), passing a number of theory exams, and successfully demonstrating flying skills to an examiner during a flight test or checkride. The typical minimum age for a Private Pilot Certificate is 17 (though other types of certifications differ in age minimum)[1]
Different types of PPL are issued for the major categories of aircraft: powered airplanes/aeroplanes; gliders ; helicopters; gyroplanes; balloons; airships.
PPL is issued either according to the FAA (American licences) or JAA (European licences) regulations. Each organisation has different requirements, and one a PPL licence issued according by another regulator is only valid after application.
A license will contain a number of sub-qualifications or ratings. These specify in more detail the actual privileges of the license, including the types of aircraft that can be flown, whether flight under Instrument Flight Rules and at night is allowed, and whether instructing and examining of trainee pilots can be done.
In addition, a number of endorsements are available for specific skills (additional requirements apply):
Night VFR
Instrument Flying (IFR)
Multi-Engine
Piston/Turbine
Design features: Tailwheel, Retractable Undercarraige, Float-Plane, etc.
Aerobatics, spins, formation flying, etc.
Agricultural, stock-mustering, etc.
References
^ FAA - Aviation Medical Examiner
See also
Private aviation
Commercial Pilot License
Pilot licensing and certification
External links
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Airplane FAA August 2002
Computer Testing Supplement for Recreational Pilot and Private Pilot FAA 2004
Private Pilot License (PPL) and flying information (UK)
PilotOutlook.com: Private Pilot License - Requirements and approximate costs (US
[hide]
v • d • eLists relating to aviation
General
Timeline of aviation · Aircraft (manufacturers) · Aircraft engines (manufacturers) · Airports · Airlines
Military
Air forces · Aircraft weapons · Missiles · Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) · Experimental aircraft
Accidents/incidents
General · Military · Commercial (airliners) · Deaths
Records
Airspeed · Distance · Altitude · Endurance · Most-produced aircraft
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Pilot_License"
Categories: Aviation licenses and certifications
Views
Article
Discussion
Edit this page
History
Personal tools
Log in / create account
if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha();
Navigation
Main Page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Search
Interaction
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Donate to Wikipedia
Help
Toolbox
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Printable version
Permanent link
Cite this page
Languages
Deutsch
Français
Italiano
Nederlands
日本語
This page was last modified on 4 July 2008, at 20:00.
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Private Pilot License Card from the United States
A Private Pilot License (PPL) or, in the United States, a Private Pilot Certificate, is a qualification that permits the holder to act as the pilot of an aircraft privately, i.e. not for remuneration. The basic requirements to obtain the license and the privileges it confers are agreed internationally by ICAO, however the actual implementation varies quite widely from country to country. According to ICAO, it is obtained by successfully completing a course of flight training of at least 40 hours duration (45 in the UK), passing a number of theory exams, and successfully demonstrating flying skills to an examiner during a flight test or checkride. The typical minimum age for a Private Pilot Certificate is 17 (though other types of certifications differ in age minimum)[1]
Different types of PPL are issued for the major categories of aircraft: powered airplanes/aeroplanes; gliders ; helicopters; gyroplanes; balloons; airships.
PPL is issued either according to the FAA (American licences) or JAA (European licences) regulations. Each organisation has different requirements, and one a PPL licence issued according by another regulator is only valid after application.
A license will contain a number of sub-qualifications or ratings. These specify in more detail the actual privileges of the license, including the types of aircraft that can be flown, whether flight under Instrument Flight Rules and at night is allowed, and whether instructing and examining of trainee pilots can be done.
In addition, a number of endorsements are available for specific skills (additional requirements apply):
Night VFR
Instrument Flying (IFR)
Multi-Engine
Piston/Turbine
Design features: Tailwheel, Retractable Undercarraige, Float-Plane, etc.
Aerobatics, spins, formation flying, etc.
Agricultural, stock-mustering, etc.
References
^ FAA - Aviation Medical Examiner
See also
Private aviation
Commercial Pilot License
Pilot licensing and certification
External links
Private Pilot Practical Test Standards for Airplane FAA August 2002
Computer Testing Supplement for Recreational Pilot and Private Pilot FAA 2004
Private Pilot License (PPL) and flying information (UK)
PilotOutlook.com: Private Pilot License - Requirements and approximate costs (US
[hide]
v • d • eLists relating to aviation
General
Timeline of aviation · Aircraft (manufacturers) · Aircraft engines (manufacturers) · Airports · Airlines
Military
Air forces · Aircraft weapons · Missiles · Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) · Experimental aircraft
Accidents/incidents
General · Military · Commercial (airliners) · Deaths
Records
Airspeed · Distance · Altitude · Endurance · Most-produced aircraft
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Pilot_License"
Categories: Aviation licenses and certifications
Views
Article
Discussion
Edit this page
History
Personal tools
Log in / create account
if (window.isMSIE55) fixalpha();
Navigation
Main Page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Search
Interaction
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Donate to Wikipedia
Help
Toolbox
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Printable version
Permanent link
Cite this page
Languages
Deutsch
Français
Italiano
Nederlands
日本語
This page was last modified on 4 July 2008, at 20:00.
All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
